How do liver and heart cells transport NADHs from glycolysis into the mit matrix and why do these still produce the full 2.5 ATPs?

How do liver and heart cells transport NADHs from glycolysis into the mit matrix and why do these still produce the full 2.5 ATPs? Answer: How---by...

In the aldol cleavage of Fructose 1,6 bis phosphate to DHAP and GAP, why is there 96% DHAP?

In the aldol cleavage of Fructose 1,6 bis phosphate to DHAP and GAP, why is there 96% DHAP? Answer: Because DHAP is involved in the uptake of...

Why does the c ring rotate?

Why does the c ring rotate? Answer: Each c subunit has a critical aspartic acid residue that when an H+ comes in, causes it to become neutralized...

Describe how ATP hydrolysis (the reverse reaction) can be visualized.

Describe how ATP hydrolysis (the reverse reaction) can be visualized. Answer: Attachment of an actin filament to the rotating gamma subunit allows...

Describe how the gamma and beta subunits of ATP synthase interact to allow ATP formation.

Describe how the gamma and beta subunits of ATP synthase interact to allow ATP formation. Answer: The gamma subunit as it rotates extends into...

Describe the structure of ATP synthase.

Describe the structure of ATP synthase. Answer: Draw and label i...

Describe the experiment used to test the proton-motive force. Draw it.

Describe the experiment used to test the proton-motive force. Draw it. Answer: Used light sensitive bacteriorhodopsin protein incorporated on...

Describe the action on Complex IV.

Describe the action on Complex IV. Answer: Cytochrome C Oxidase catalyzes the transfer of electrons from 4 reduced Cyt C molecules to Oxygen....

Describe how Complex III makes QH2 give up its protons.

Describe how Complex III makes QH2 give up its protons. Answer: Complex III is Q-cytochrome C oxidoreductase...

What is ubiquinone versus ubiquinol?

What is ubiquinone versus ubiquinol? Answer: Ubiquinone is the oxidized form of Coenzyme Q (Q) Ubiquinol is the reduced form of Coenzyme Q (QH2...

Why does each NADH give 2.5 ATPs but each FADH2 only gives 1.5.

Why does each NADH give 2.5 ATPs but each FADH2 only gives 1.5. Answer: When FADH2 is taken up by Complex II, it undergoes the same transfer...

What are the two special things about Complex II.

What are the two special things about Complex II. Answer: It is the same succinate dehydrogenase from the Krebs cycle. Was the only Krebs Cycle...

Describe the flow of NADH's electrons.

Describe the flow of NADH's electrons. Answer: NADH gives two electrons to FMN, the electrons then travel through a series of iron-sulfur clusters...

Describe the structure of Complex I.

Describe the structure of Complex I. Answer: It is a Huge complex with 46 subunits. Its structure suggests a piston mechanism that shunts protons...

What is the respirasome?

What is the respirasome? Answer: These are Complexes I, II, III, IV that sit on the mitochondrial inner membrane and are involved in the pumping...

Explain the role of dynein in flagella movement.

Explain the role of dynein in flagella movement. Answer: Dynein arms reach up to grab adjacent microtubule in doublet. Creates a bending that...

What are focal contacts?

What are focal contacts? Answer: The "feet" involved in cell crawling. This happens if a whole cell needs to move to a diff region. The focal...

Why can drugs that affect microtubules and actin filaments be used for chemotherapy?

Why can drugs that affect microtubules and actin filaments be used for chemotherapy? Answer: Tumor cells are rapidly dividing hence is their...

What is the structure of an Intermediate Filament like and why are they important in determining tumor metastasis?

What is the structure of an Intermediate Filament like and why are they important in determining tumor metastasis? Answer: Made up of a series...

What is plectin?

What is plectin? Answer: Cross links that hold intermediate filaments and microtubules together. Seen on a micrograph...

What is dynein and kinesin?

What is dynein and kinesin? Answer: Molecular motors that move vesicles along a microtubule in a cell. Dynein walks towards the neg end, kinesis...

What is treadmilling and catastrophic disassembly?

What is treadmilling and catastrophic disassembly? Answer: Treadmilling---plus end is growing at same rate as disassembly on minus end Catastrophic...

Describe the hollow tube structure of microtubules and how they are formed.

Describe the hollow tube structure of microtubules and how they are formed. Answer: 13 protofilaments roll up into a hollow tube. Grown at the...

Describe the layers of the gut epithelial cell membrane.

Describe the layers of the gut epithelial cell membrane. Answer: Apical plasma membrane (nutrient and water intake, secretion regulation), Lateral...

Give two examples of sentinel cells and how they work.

Give two examples of sentinel cells and how they work. Answer: They cruise around cells and if they see a problem, they signal. Monocytes will...

What is a focal adhesion kinase?

What is a focal adhesion kinase? Answer: A molecule that is involved in actin signalling to the nucleus. It does this by phosphorylating...

What are integrins?

What are integrins? Answer: Transmembrane proteins that appear as dimers to which other components of the cytoskeleton are anchored...

What is mTORC1 and mTORC2?

What is mTORC1 and mTORC2? Answer: Signal molecules involved in regulation of cell growth, metabolism, motility and survival. Absence of mTORC1...

Why is b-catenin so important in development?

Why is b-catenin so important in development? Answer: When present (i.e not degraded by Wg pathway), it goes into the nucleus to start a complex...

What is Wnt?

What is Wnt? Answer: An important messenger during development. It binds to frizzled which causes dishevelled to become activated to prevent...

Describe the role of nitric oxide in smooth muscle relaxation in a blood vessel wall?

Describe the role of nitric oxide in smooth muscle relaxation in a blood vessel wall? Answer: An activated nerve terminal releases acetylcholine...

What are the two types of receptors in signal transduction?

What are the two types of receptors in signal transduction? Answer: G protein linked receptors and Tyrosine kinase linked receptor...

Describe the structure of the Protein Tyrosine Kinase 2 receptor?

Describe the structure of the Protein Tyrosine Kinase 2 receptor? Answer: It exists as a dimer on the membrane and when the ligand binds, trans...

What are 3 roles of epinephrine?

What are 3 roles of epinephrine? Answer: Break down of glycogen Smooth muscle relations (stomach) Vasodilation (increases blood supply to other ...

What is PIP2?

What is PIP2? Answer: A plasma membrane phospholipid that when hydrolyzed by Phospholipase C, produces IP3 (inositol trisphosphate) a secondary...

Give a major role of Protein Kinase A?

Give a major role of Protein Kinase A? Answer: PKA---Regulates metabolism by turning off and on glycogen production versus breakdown, and glucose...

Give an example of a signal transduction pathway involving cAMP and Protein kinases?

Give an example of a signal transduction pathway involving cAMP and Protein kinases? Answer: When cAMP is lose in a cell, it cam phosphorylate...

What are protein kinases?

What are protein kinases? Answer: Enzymes that modify protein activity by phosphorylating them. They hence regulate a majority of signal transduction...

What is cAMP?

What is cAMP? Answer: Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate. Derived from ATP by way of an enzyme called adenylate cyclase which is an integral membrane...

Describe the signal transduction of epinephrine.

Describe the signal transduction of epinephrine. Answer: Epinephrine is the ligand. It binds to B-adrenergic receptor which is a transmembrane...

Describe the structure of a GCPR

Describe the structure of a GCPR Answer: 1000 members in family. Long polypeptides that can make 7 passes through the membrane. Variety found...

What are G proteins and GCPRs?

What are G proteins and GCPRs? Answer: G proteins and guanine nucleotide binding proteins with GTP as their energy source. Their main function...

What are secondary messenger molecules?

What are secondary messenger molecules? Answer: They are intracellular molecules that relay an extracellular message given by a ligand on a receptor....

What is signal transduction (3 ideas)

What is signal transduction (3 ideas) Answer: The use of messenger cascades to transmit a message. The ligand (messenger) and receptor binding...

Describe the 3 types of hormones

Describe the 3 types of hormones Answer: Autocrine, Paracrine (secreted to work on neighboring cells), Endocrine (secreted into blood for long...

Describe what a synaptic vesicle looks like

Describe what a synaptic vesicle looks like Answer: Has a bunch of proteins displayed on i...

Give examples of excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory ones.

Give examples of excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory ones. Answer: E--Acetylcholine, Glutamate, Seratonine I---GABA, Glycine Neurotransmitters...

Explain how neurotransmitters excite or inhibit.

Explain how neurotransmitters excite or inhibit. Answer: Excitatory ones Depolarize by causing Na+ channels to open (so inside becomes more positive...

What are neurotransmitters?

What are neurotransmitters? Answer: Very small proteins. Chemicals that are kept in vesicles. They travel from presynaptic cell to post synaptic...

Describe the generation and propagation of an AP by drawing and labeling a graph.

Describe the generation and propagation of an AP by drawing and labeling a graph. Answer: Include words like gates closed, resting MP, permeability,...

What are glial cells?

What are glial cells? Answer: A highly complex group of cells in the nervous system. Some are involved in conduction of AP,some for Synapse development...

What are astrocytes?

What are astrocytes? Answer: Involved in the formation of synapses. Control access of blood vessels to the extracellular fluid of the nervous...

Give the formulas of the Nerst and Goldman equations

Give the formulas of the Nerst and Goldman equations Answer: Write ou...

Describe the Nernst equation versus the Goldman equation.

Describe the Nernst equation versus the Goldman equation. Answer: They are usually made up of identical protein dimers (usually alpha helices)...

Describe the structure of ion channels.

Describe the structure of ion channels. Answer: They are usually made up of identical protein dimers (usually alpha helices) on a membrane that...

What is the Sodium Potassium ATPase for?

What is the Sodium Potassium ATPase for? Answer: It maintains normal intracellular and extracellular charge distribution for all cells by way...

Describe the normal charge distribution in and outside a cell and where Na+ and K+ are mostly present.

Describe the normal charge distribution in and outside a cell and where Na+ and K+ are mostly present. Answer: A normal cell is neg charged inside...

What is the diff between average velocity and instantaneous velocity? Which is more important? Give the eq for each

What is the diff between average velocity and instantaneous velocity? Which is more important? Give the eq for each Answer: Average velocity...

Draw a right angled triangle and label it to resolve for velocity components?

Draw a right angled triangle and label it to resolve for velocity components? Answer: The side opposite the angle is always hyp sin theta The side...

What is cos^2theta + sin^2theta?

What is cos^2theta + sin^2theta? Answer: cos^2theta + sin^2theta=...

Write out the chart for common angles and their sin and cosines?

Write out the chart for common angles and their sin and cosines? Answer: Column 1 (Angles)= 0,30,45,60,90 Column 2 (Sines)= 0 over 2 (0), Square...

What is the difference between a vector and a scalar? Give two examples of each

What is the difference between a vector and a scalar? Give two examples of each Answer: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction (eg....

What are the 4 types of motion?

What are the 4 types of motion? Answer: Translational, Rotational, Vibrational, Combinatio...

What is the 5 point Verbal Strategy?

What is the 5 point Verbal Strategy? Answer: 1) Know your author (you must answer questions from his/her point of view) 2) What is the main idea 3)...

What are the five excuses to explain organic chemistry? Describe them

What are the five excuses to explain organic chemistry? Describe them Answer: Resonance, the Inductive effect, Steric interactions, Aromaticity,...

What are the angles and shapes for sp, sp2, sp3 hybridized orbitals?

What are the angles and shapes for sp, sp2, sp3 hybridized orbitals? Answer: sp--180 (linear), sp2--120 (trigonal planar), sp3--109.5 (tetra...

How many bonds will carbon, nitrogen, oxygen an hydrogen form and why?

How many bonds will carbon, nitrogen, oxygen an hydrogen form and why? Answer: Since they have 4, 5, 6, 1 valence electrons and therefore need...

What is meant by hybridization. Use carbon as an example to explain.

What is meant by hybridization. Use carbon as an example to explain. Answer: The bringing of orbitals together to form a new type of orbital....

What are sigma and pi bonds?

What are sigma and pi bonds? Answer: The two types of covalent bonds. Sigma--the electron density is shared between the two nuclei. Pi---the...

Describe the 3 types of major bonds and give examples?

Describe the 3 types of major bonds and give examples? Covalent--an even sharing due to same elec negativities eg. C-C Ionic--a transfer of electrons...

What the types of 4 structures important on the MCAT?

What the types of 4 structures important on the MCAT? Answer: Lewis Dot Structures--A 2D depiction of molecules showing valence electrons (shared...

What does the n, iso, sec and tert mean in naming organic compounds?

What does the n, iso, sec and tert mean in naming organic compounds? Answer: This method is used to name branched hydrocarbon substituents (not...

Draw these functional groups alkane, alkene, alkyne, alcohol, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, ketone, ester, ether

Draw these functional groups alkane, alkene, alkyne, alcohol, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, ketone, ester, ether Answer: Alkane, Alkene, Alkyne...

What are the prefixes for compounds with 1-10 carbons?

What are the prefixes for compounds with 1-10 carbons? Answer: meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, de...

Describe a general way to attach R groups to CNT's using amines and F.

Describe a general way to attach R groups to CNT's using amines and F. Get F to stick out, react primary amines with the fluorinated CNTs to yield...

Explain how fluorine allows us to put virtually any R on a CNT.

Explain how fluorine allows us to put virtually any R on a CNT. Fluorine is a good leaving group which can be replaced easily by other functional...

For halogenation of carbon nanotubes- this is the halogen of choice - what special property does it offer?

For halogenation of carbon nanotubes- this is the halogen of choice - what special property does it offer? fluorine - degree of fluorination can be...

Two main issues that end up being great for us when trying to surface functionalize carbon nanotubes.

Two main issues that end up being great for us when trying to surface functionalize carbon nanotubes. 1. Surface functionalization always modifies...